The Australian Centre for Philanthropy and Nonprofit Studies, qut
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Australian contextAustralia is a culturally-diverse nation with 28.1% of the estimated resident population born overseas (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2015a). There is growing need in view of Australia’s increasing cultural diversity to understand the ways in which culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) volunteers contribute to civil society (Madkhul 2007). At present, the experience of volunteers from CALD backgrounds is underrepresented within the established Australian philanthropic sector (Baker and Moran 2014) and research into the volunteer involvement of cultural minorities in Australia is limited (Dolnicar and Randle 2005). Consistent with international research into minority volunteering there are concerns among Australian researchers that a narrow focus on formal volunteering may underestimate the high levels of social investment made by those from Indigenous and CALD backgrounds (Warburton and Mclaughlin 2007). The Australian volunteering sector is largely informed by a mainstream, Anglo-Celtic approach to volunteering which may exclude minority cultural groups (Kerr, Savelsberg and Tedmanson 2001). Warburton and McLaughlin (2012) found that the voluntary contribution of people from culturally-diverse backgrounds, including Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders, often goes unrecognised. Elders from diverse backgrounds are active in their communities in different ways to mainstream older Australians. For example, their role in maintaining and promoting culture and mentoring ‘troubled’ youth though judicial and educational systems are often not accounted for in volunteering statistics and policy documents. This may underestimate the high levels of social investment made by Indigenous people and those from CALD backgrounds. Similarly, Baker and Moran (2014) recently conducted a qualitative study into the Victorian Chinese community’s response to ageing and whether their community-level philanthropic responses are reflected in the mainstream philanthropic community. They found that the mainstream philanthropic community does not fully reflect Australia’s diverse multicultural society. This lack of diversity may impede social inclusion by hindering migrant communities’:
‘access to resources (i.e. private funds) recognition of migrants communities; community-level achievements and resilience, and representation of Australians, from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds is poorly reflected within the established Australian Philanthropic Sector.’ (Baker and Moran 2014, 30). It is also important to understand philanthropic donors from different religious and cultural backgrounds, for example the nation’s growing Muslim population provides opportunities for fundraisers to learn about Islamic philanthropy, and the way in which Islam influences the nature and type of giving. One of the five tenets of Islam is the religious obligation to give. This includes certain preferences and traditions such as the importance for anonymity and instructions around tax deductions and making a Will (Johnson 2012). In general there is a significant gap in the literature on the volunteering and philanthropic activities of people from CALD communities in Australia (Kerr, Savelsberg and Tedmanson 2001). While studies from the UK and the US have examined the giving and volunteering practices of particular minority groups research in the Australian context is limited. It is important to note that CALD communities represent a wide range of ethnic groups and greater research is needed into the experiences of particular ethnic minorities as well as across cultural groups. Furthermore, while peak body reports have provided general strategies for engaging CALD communities in Australia (See: AMES Australia 2011; Madkhul 2007; Volunteering Australia 2006) there is a lack of a strategic and unified approach to addressing diversity in philanthropy, such as the D5 initiative in the US. Key issues and emerging trendsThis review has highlighted a number of themes relating to the influence of cultural diversity on volunteering and giving. Culture and religion have a role to play in explaining the differences in motivation and behaviours among people from a different cultural background. However, international research has tended to focus on explaining the motivations and barriers experienced by particular minority communities. There is also a general recognition that ethnic volunteering and giving differs from mainstream approaches and may be underrepresented. The US in particular has made concerted attempts to broaden diversity in philanthropy through efforts such as the D5 initiative and the Kellogg Foundation Cultures of Giving. However, these programs have primarily centred on identity-based funds and therefore may not reflect the full spectrum of ethnic volunteering and giving. Nonetheless, such programs have generated a greater understanding of ethnic giving and challenged traditional conceptions of philanthropy, which has been long been associated with white families and wealthy individuals. Research on diaspora philanthropy while nascent is another growing field of inquiry. Technological advancements and innovative giving platforms have enabled diaspora communities to retain connection with their country of origin more so than in the past. To date studies have focused on the giving practices of particular diaspora communities and research has emerged largely from the US and Canada. In Australia refugee settlement in rural and regional areas has provided new opportunities for volunteering (McDonald et al. 2008). Responding to the lack of resources and infrastructure in non-metropolitan areas of Australia a new type of autonomous volunteer is emerging to assist with the resettlement of refugees (Sawtell, Dickson-Swift and Verrinder 2010). Operating outside traditional volunteer roles created by government or organisational policy these volunteers present new forms of voluntarism that is yet be fully explored. ReferencesAMES Australia. 2011. Engaging CALD communities in volunteering in Victoria: A guide for volunteer-involving organisations. http://www.volunteer.vic.gov.au/manage-your-volunteers/encouraging-diversity/working-with-people-from-culturally-diverse-backgrounds#tools. Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2015. Australia's population by country of birth, Migration, Australia 2013-2014. cat no. 3412.0. Canberra: Australian Government. http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Latestproducts/3412.0Main%20Features32014-15?opendocument&tabname=Summary&prodno=3412.0&issue=2014-15&num=&view=. Baker, Christopher and Michael Moran. 2014. Access Recognition and Representation: Philanthropy and Ageing in a Multicultural Society. Melbourne: Centre for Social Impact, Swinburne. http://www.swinburne.edu.au/business/philanthropy Baker, Christopher and Bruno Mascitelli. 2011. "Diaspora philanthropy and its influences: An Australian perspective." The Journal of Contemporary Issues in Business and Government 17 (2): 19-31. http://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=074074302956355;res=IELBUS. Berger, Ida. 2006. "The Influence of Religion on Philanthropy in Canada." Voluntas 17: 115-132. Berman, Melissa. 2012. "Communities of colour fund a brighter future,." Philanthropy Impact. http://www.philanthropy-impact.org/article/communities-colour-fund-brighter-future. Boenigk, Silke, Marius Mew and Wim de Kort. 2015. "Missing Minorities: Explaining Low Migrant Blood Donation Participation and Developing Recruitment Tactics." Voluntas 26 (4): 1240-1260. Brinkerhoff, Jennifer M. 2014. "Diaspora Philanthropy: Lessons From a Demographic Analysis of the Coptic Diaspora." Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 43 (6): 969-992. D5 Coalition. 2014. "About D5: Advancing diversity, equity and inclusion over 5 years." http://www.d5coalition.org/about/. Dekker, Paul and Loek Halman. 2003. "Volunteering and Values: An Introduction." In The Values of Volunteering: Cross-Cultural Perspectives edited by Paul Dekker and Loek Halman, 1-6. New York Kluwer. Dolnicar, Sara and Melanie Randle. 2005. "Cultural Perceptions of Volunteering: Attracting Volunteers in an Increasingly Multicultural Society." Paper presented at the ANZMAC 2005 Conference: Social, Not-for-Profit and Political Marketing, University of Western Australia, Perth. Drezner, Noah D.. 2011. Who is Philanthropic? Philanthropy by Nontraditional Donors. 2 vols. Vol. 37: ASHE Higher Education Report. Grölund, Henrietta, Kirsten Holmes, Chulhee Kang, Ram A. Cnaan, Femida Handy, Jeffrey L. Brudney, Debbie Haski-Leventhal, et al. 2001. "Cultural Values and Volunteering: A Cross-cultural Comparison of Students' Motivation to Volunteer in 13 Countries." Journal of Academic Ethics 9 (2): 87-106. Hall, Michael, David Lasby, Steven Ayer and William David Gibbons. 2009. Caring Canadians, Involved Canadians: Highlights from the 2007 Canada Survey of Giving, Volunteering and Participating, cat no. 71-542-X. Ottawa: Statistics Canada. http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/71-542-x/71-542-x2009001-eng.pdf. Handy, Femida and Itay Greenspan. 2009. "Immigrant Volunteering A Stepping Stone to Integration." Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 38 (6): 956-982. Internal Revenue Service. 2016a. "Exempt Purposes - Internal Revenue Code Section 501(c)(3)." https://www.irs.gov/charities-non-profits/charitable-organizations/exempt-purposes-internal-revenue-code-section-501-c-3. Internal Revenue Service. 2016b. "Exemption Requirements - 501(c)(3) Organizations." https://www.irs.gov/charities-non-profits/charitable-organizations/exemption-requirements-section-501-c-3-organizations. Johnson, Greg. 2012. "Understanding Islamic Giving in Australia ". In Fundraising and Philanthropy Magazine. Lambton Fundraising and Philanthropy Australasia. Johnson, Paula Doherty 2007. Diaspora Philanthropy: Influences, Initiatives, and Issues Boston: The Philantrhopic Initiative Inc. and The Global Equity Initiative Harvard University. Kerr, Lorraine, Harry Savelsberg and Deirdre Tedmanson. 2001. Experiences and Perceptions of Volunteering in Indigenous and non-English Speaking Background Communties South Australia Social Policy Research Group, University of South Australia. Lee, Young-joo and Jeffrey L. Brudney. 2012. "Participation in Formal and Informal Volunteering Implications for Volunteer Recruitment " Nonprofit Management & Leadership 23 (2): 159-180. Leslie, Lisa M., Mark Snyder and Theresa Glomb. 2013. "Who Gives? Multilevel Effects of Gender and Ethnicity on Workplace Charitable Giving." Journal of Applied Psychology 98 (1): 49-62. Lim, Chaeyoon and Carol Ann MacGregor. 2012. "Religion and Volunteering Context: Disentangling the Contextual Effects of Religion on Voluntary Behavior " American Sociological Review 77 (5): 747-779. Madkhul, Dakhylina. 2007. Supporting volunteering activities in Australian Muslim communities, particularly youth. Volunteering Australia Melbourne: Australian Multicultural Foundation and Volunteering Australia. http://www.volunteeringaustralia.org/wp-content/files_mf/1377045799VASupportingVolunteeringActivitiesinAustralianMuslimCommunitiesParticularlyYouth.pdf. Mata, Fernando and Don McRae. 2000. “Charitable Giving Among the Foreign-Born in Canada.” Journal of International Migration and Integration 1 (2): 205-232. McDonald, Brooke, Sandy Gifford, Kim Webster, John Wiseman and Sue Casey. 2008. Refugee Resettlement in Regional and Rual Victoria: Impacts and Policy Issues. Victoria Victorian Health Promotion Foundation. Meijs, Lucas C. P. M. and Bridges Karr. 2004. “Managing Volunteers in Different Settings: Membership and Programme Mangement.” In Volunteering as Leisure/Leisure as Volunteering: An International Assessment, edited by R.A. Stebbins and M. Graham, 177-193. Wallingford: CAB International. Moon, Seong-Gin and Sang Ok Choi. 2012. "Ethinic Giving Versus Mainstream Giving by Foreign-Born Korean Immigrants in California." Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 42 (4): 803-827. Musick, Marc A., John. Wilson and William B. Jr. Bynum. 2000. "Race and Formal Volunteering: The Differential Effects of Class and Religion." Social Forces 78 (4): 1539-1579. PERCO. 2004. "Cultural Diversity in your Oganisation: Guidance for National Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies on Volunteering in Social Welfare Work." International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. Prouteua, Lionel and Boguslawa Sardinha. 2015. "Volunteering and Country-Level Religiosity: Evidence from the European Union." Voluntas 26 (1): 242-266. Randle, Melanie and Sara Dolnicar. 2009. "Does Cultural Background Affect Volunteering Behavior?." Journal of Nonprofit and Public Sector Marketing 21 (2): 225-247. Randle, Melanie and Sara Dolnicar. 2012. "Attracting Volunteers in Highly Multicultural Societies: A Marketing Challenge " Journal of Nonprofit and Public Sector Marketing 24 (4): 351-69. Ruiter, Stijn and Nan Dirk De Graaf. 2006. "National Context, Religiosity and Volunteering: Results from 53 Countries." American Sociological Review 71 (2): 191-210. Sawtell, John, Dickson-Swift and Glenda Verrinder. 2010. ""It's not all tied up with bureaucrats and funding: Automous volunteer participation in the fural resettlement of refugees." Australian Journal of Social Issues 45 (4): 543-558. Sidel, Mark. 2008. "Diaspora Giving: An Agent of Change in Aisa Pacific Communities?" Asia Pacific Philanthropy Consortium. http://asianphilanthropy.org/APPC/DiasporaGiving-conference-2008/DiasporaGiving-Overview-2008.pdf. UN-DESA and OECD. 2013. World Migration in Figures: United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. https://www.oecd.org/els/mig/World-Migration-in-Figures.pdf. Volunteering Australia. 2006. "Involving volunteers from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds." http://www.volunteeringaustralia.org/wp-content/files_mf/1377052800VAManagersinvolvingvolunteersfromculturallyandlinguisticallydiversebackgrounds.pdf. W.K. Kellogg Foundation. 2012. Cultures of giving: Energizing and expanding philanthropy by and for communities of color. Michigan: W.K. Kellogg Foundation. https://www.michiganfoundations.org/resources/cultures-giving-energizing-and-expanding-philanthropy-and-communities-color. Wang, Lili and Elizabeth Graddy. 2008. "Social capital, volunteering, and charitable giving." Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations 19 (1): 23-42. doi: 10.1007/s11266-008-9055-y. Wang, Lili and Femida Handy. 2014. "Religious and Secular Voluntary Participation by Immigrants in Canada: How Trust and Social Networks Affect Decision to Participate." Voluntas 25 (6): 1559-1582. Wang, Lili, Carlton F. Yoshioka and Robert F. Ashcraft. 2013. "What Affects Hispanic Volunteering in the United States: Comparing the Current Population Survey, Panel Study of Income Dynamics, and the AIM Giving and Volunteering Survey." Voluntas 24 (1): 125-148. Warburton, Jeni and Deidre Mclaughlin. 2007. "Passing on Our Culture: How Older Australians from Diverse Cultural Backgrounds Contribute to Civil Society." Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology 22 (1): 47-60. Wilson, John. and Marc A. Musick. 1997. "Who Cares? Toward and Integrated Theory of Volunteer Work " American Sociological Review 62 (5): 694-713. Young-joo, Lee and Seong-Gin Moon. 2011. "Mainstream and Ethnic Volunteering by Korean Immigrants in the United States." Voluntas 22 (811-830).
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