D. Translate the following text from Russian into English

D. Translate the following text from Russian into English.

Устная информация – самый древний способ передачи знаний в истории человечества. После изобретения древними цивилизациями систем записи люди начали использовать для письма почти все, на чём можно писать – глиняные плитки, кору дерева, листы металла и т. п.

В Древнем Египте для записи использовался папирус (вид бумаги, сделанной из стеблей одноимённого растения). Однако первым свидетельством считают бухгалтерские книги Короля Нефериркаре Какйя (приблизительно 2400 до н.э). Отдельные листы папируса, для удобства хранения, склеивались в свитки.

Эта традиция получила широкое распространение в Эллинском и Римском мире, хотя есть свидетельства, что использовалась также древесная кора, из которой позже сформировались и другие материалы. Согласно древним источникам, письменность и папирус были принесены в Грецию финикийцами около X или IX века до н. э. Греческим словом, обозначающим папирус как материал для записей, стало «библион», а для обозначения книги  – «библос». В школах, в бухгалтерской деятельности и для заметок обычно применялись восковые таблички. Они имели преимущество многократного использования: воск можно было расплавить и наносить новый текст. Связывание таких табличек – возможный предшественник современного книжного переплёта.

Свитки папируса были ещё распространены, когда в I веке н. э. появились старинные рукописи (кодексы). Постепенно их стали использовать всё чаще и чаще; первое письменное упоминание о рукописях как разновидности книг относится к концу I века, когда Марциал в своей Apophoreta CLXXXIV хвалит их компактность. В языческом мире рукопись не нашла признания и только с христианством была популяризирована и получила широкое распространение.

Сначала старинная рукопись использовалась для ведения бухгалтерии, но, с развитием пергамента в III веке н. э., постепенно начала вытеснять папирусы. Это происходило уже в христианском мире. Причин принятия рукописи как основного вида книг несколько: она экономична, поскольку можно использовать обе стороны листа; ее легко спрятать; она была удобна и доступна. Возможно, христианские авторы использовали рукописи нарочно, чтобы они не были похожи на языческие тексты, которые обычно писались в форме свитков.

Перед изобретением и внедрением печатной машины почти все книги переписывались вручную, что делало книги дорогими и редкими.

В первых книгах для страниц использовали пергамент или велень (кожу теленка). Обложки были сделаны из древесины и покрыты кожей. Поскольку высушенный пергамент плохо формуется, книги были оснащены зажимами или обвязкой.

В XV веке Иоганн Гутенберг создал печатную машину с металлическими наборными элементами, что сделало книги сравнительно доступными (хотя для большинства всё ещё весьма дорогими).

Хотя изготовление бумаги в Европе началось около XI века, вплоть до начала XVI века и бумага и велень производились практически в одинаковых объёмах, но велень был дороже и прочнее. Печатники и издатели часто выпускали ту же самую публикацию на двух материалах, чтобы угодить всем потребителям. Как и многие другие средневековые изобретения, первая бумага была сделана в Китае, в 200 г. до н. э. и достигла Европы через мусульманские территории. Сначала её делали из ткани, но промышленная революция позволила начать делать бумагу из более дешёвого материала – целлюлозы.

2. Notes

447. 
     
     
448. 
     I. Multiple Choice
     
449. 
     
     
450. 
     Choose the alternative that best completes the statement or answers the question.
     
451. 
     
     
452. 
     1. The first example of advertising comes from _____.
     

453. 
     a. Babylonian shop owners hanging signs carved in stone and wood b. town criers in European cities calling out the news of the day and directing customers to various shops c. English booksellers printing brochures and bills announcing new books d. none of the above
     
     
     
454. 
     2. The first advertising agencies were _____.
     
455. 
     a. English booksellers b. departments of the federal government c. newspaper space brokers d. all of the above
     

456. 
     3. By the end of the 1800s, _____ and _____ dominated advertising.
     

457. 
     a. land sales/transportation announcements b. patent medicines/department stores c. patent medicines/transportation announcements d. department stores/runaway slaves
     

458. 
     4. One example of a contemporary product that originated as medicine is _____.
     

459. 
     a. Coca-Cola b. Hershey's chocolate c. Heinz d. Colgate toothpaste
     

460. 
     5. The Ad Council has been praised over the years for its _____ campaign.
     

461. 
     a. Smokey the Bear b. fundraising for the United Negro College Fund c. Department of Transportation d. all of the above
     

462. 
     6. One of the largest mega-agencies in the world is _____.
     

463. 
     a. WPP b. Ogilvy & Mather c. Weiden & Kennedy d. Hill and Knowlton
     

464. 
     7. The _____ department of an advertising agency assesses the behaviors and attitudes of consumers toward particular products.
     

465. 
     a. creative development b. administrative unit c. market research d. media selection
     

466. 
     8. A storyboard is typically designed as a blueprint for a _____.
     

467. 
     a. television commercial b. radio spot c. direct-mail ad d. all of the above
     

468. 
     9. People who choose and purchase the types of media best suited to carry a client's ad are known as _____.
     

469. 
     a. account executives b. researchers c. writers d. media buyers
     

470. 
     10. The _____ tries to persuade consumers that using a particular product will elevate their social status.
     

471. 
     a. snob-appeal technique b. plain-folks pitch c. bandwagon effect d. hidden-fear appeal
     

472. 
     11. The _____ plays on consumers' insecurities.
     

473. 
     a. snob appeal b. hidden-fear appeal c. bandwagon effect d. famous-person testimonial
     

474. 
     12. The _____ is a trend in which advertisers link new brands in a product line to simple regional places rather than to a giant conglomerate.
     

475. 
     a. association principle b. myth analysis c. disassociation corollary d. none of the above
     

476. 
     13. Advertisements featuring oddly-dressed car salesmen yelling at the camera are examples of _____.
     

477. 
     a. the plain-folks pitch b. irritation advertising c. hidden-fear appeal d. famous-person testimonial
     

478. 
     14. Gallo's campaign for Bartles & Jaymes is an example of _____.
     

479. 
     a. disassociation b. myth analysis c. association d. famous-person testimonial
     

480. 
     15. Groups like the Action for Children's Television worked to limit advertising aimed at children, particularly _____.
     
481. 
     a. toys associated with war b. thirty-minute cartoon programs developed to promote a line of toys c. children's books d. none of the above
     

482. 
     16. The Joe Camel ad campaign was aimed at _____.
     

483. 
     a. minorities b. women c. youth d. all of the above
     

484. 
     17. When the FTC discovers deceptive ads, it usually _____.
     

485. 
     a. requires advertisers to change their ads or remove them from circulation b. fines advertisers c. does nothing d. none of the above
     

486. 
     18. The use of the Beatles' "Revolution" to promote Nike shoes is an example of _____.
     

487. 
     a. political advertising b. the blurred lines between advertising and editorial content c. transforming the political message of popular music to sell products d. all of the above
     

488. 
     19. Between _____ and _____ percent of new consumer products fail because they are not embraced by the buying public.
     
489. 
     
     
490. 
     a. 50/75 b. 75/90 c. 20/30 d. 5/25
     
491. 
     
     
492. 
     20. Early ads were in the form of _____.
     

493. 
     a. handbills b. posters c. broadsides d. all of the above
     

494. 
     21. Until _____, little need existed for advertising in America.
     

495. 
     a. World War II b. the Industrial Revolution c. 3000 B.C. d. none of the above
     

496. 
     22. The typical ad agency collects a fee from its client, keeps _____ percent, and passes on the rest to the appropriate media.
     

497. 
     a. 15 b. 20 c. 5 d. 50
     

498. 
     23. Patent medicines were often made with _____ and _____.
     

499. 
     a. Coca-Cola and water b. cocaine and ethyl alcohol c. water and ethyl alcohol d. morphine and cocaine
     

500. 
     24. Which company did not initially advertise, relying instead on building a word-of-mouth reputation?
     

501. 
     a. Coca-Cola b. Hershey's Chocolate c. Ivory Soap d. none of the above
     

502. 
     25. Using a Sting song to promote Jaguar cars is an example of _____.
     

503. 
     a. demographics b. postmodern design c. licensing a hit song for a commercial tie-in d. the visual revolution
     

504. 
     26. A phrase attempting to sell a product by capturing its essence in words is _____.
     

505. 
     a. a slogan b. market research c. a storyboard d. all of the above
     
     
     
506. 
     27. The _____ department is made up of teams of writers and artists.
     
507. 
     
     
508. 
     a. market research b. account services c. creative development d. none of the above
     

509. 
     28. Individuals responsible for bringing in new business are known as _____.
     

510. 
     a. account executives b. writers and artists c. market researchers d. WPP
     

511. 
     29. The most expensive program for purchasing advertising time is _____.
     

512. 
     a. ESPN SportsCenter b. Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? c. the Superbowl d. none of the above
     

513. 
     30. The _____ associates a product with simplicity.
     

514. 
     a. hidden-fear appeal b. snob-appeal approach c. plain-folks pitch d. none of the above
     

515. 
     31. Local car dealers who yell at the camera or dress in outrageous costumes during commercials are examples of _____.
     

516. 
     a. irritation advertising b. the hidden-fear appeal c. the plain-folks pitch d. the famous-person testimonial
     

517. 
     32. The bandwagon effect _____.
     

518. 
     a. associates a product with simplicity b. claims that everyone is using a product and you will be left out if you ignore that product c. plays on consumers' insecurities d. none of the above
     

519. 
     33. What is one of the controversial aspects of the association principle?
     

520. 
     a. the linking of many products to nature b. the association of cars with nationalism c. the linking of products to stereotyped images of women d. all of the above
     

521. 
     34. Ads displaying visual symbols of American patriotism in the wake of the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks are examples of ____.
     

522. 
     a. the disassociation corollary b. myth analysis c. famous-person testimonial d. the association principle
     

523. 
     35. Despite heavy advertising, the Scott paper company's _____ was a failure.
     

524. 
     a. thick bathroom tissue b. six-pack of paper towels c. line of disposable clothing d. none of the above
     

525. 
     36. Television shows such as G.I. Joe, My Little Pony, and Pokemon are examples of _____.
     

526. 
     a. programs developed to promote a line of toys b. commercial-free children's cartoons c. commercial speech d. all of the above
     

527. 
     37. "Heroin chic" is a term used to describe _____.
     

528. 
     a. models who routinely use heroin b. ads that use models who are so skinny that they look like the victims of drug use c. the standard of beauty in the 1960s d. none of the above
     

529. 
     38. The 1998 tobacco company settlement included _____.
     

530. 
     a. a ban on cartoon characters in advertising b. a ban on outdoor billboard and transit advertising c. a ban on tobacco-company sponsorship of concerts and athletic events d. all of the above
     

531. 
     39. In 1971, the FTC began encouraging _____ because the agency thought it would help provide more product information to consumers.
     

532. 
     a. tobacco advertising b. political advertising c. comparative advertising d. hard-liquor advertising
     

533. 
     II. Summary
     
534. 
     
     
535. 
     Summary 1 Read the summary of the section of Chapter 11 titled "Early developments in American advertising" and answer the multiple choice questions that follow.
     
536. 
     
     
537. 
     Early developments in American advertising
     
538. 
     Advertising has existed since 3000 B.C., when ancient Babylonian shop owners hung outdoor signs carved in stone and wood so customers could spot their stores. By A.D. 900, many European cities featured town criers who called out the news of the day and directed customers to various stores. Early ads were in the form of handbills, posters, and broadsides (long newsprint-quality posters). As early as the 1470s, English booksellers were printing brochures and bills announcing new books, and in 1622 print ads began appearing in the first English newspapers. The first newspaper advertisements in colonial America appeared in the Boston News-Letter in 1704. Most early magazines refused to carry advertisements, but by the mid-1800s they changed their policies, and most magazines began to contain ads. Eighty percent of early advertisements covered three topics: land sales, transportation announcements, and runaway slaves.
     
     The first advertising agencies
     
539. 
     Until the Industrial Revolution, little need existed for elaborate advertising. Few goods and products were available for sale, and demand for products was low because 90 percent of Americans lived in rural areas and produced most of their own tools, clothes, and food. National advertising, which initially focused on patent medicines, didn't really begin until the 1850s. The first advertising agencies were newspaper space brokers, or individuals who purchased space in newspapers and sold it to various merchants. These brokers, who paid up front for ad space, were welcomed by newspapers, which were accustomed to a 25 percent nonpayment rate. The first ad agency was opened in Boston in 1841 by Volney Palmer — he sold newspaper space to advertisers for a 25 percent commission.
     
     
     
540. 
     Advertising in the 1800s
     
541. 
     N.W. Ayer, the first so-called modern ad agency, opened in Philadelphia in 1875. The agency worked primarily for advertisers and product companies instead of newspapers, and it helped create, write, produce, and place ads in selected newspapers and magazines. The payment structure of nineteenth—century ad agencies is still in use today ‒ the typical agency collects a fee from its advertising client, keeps 15 percent of this fee, and passes on the rest to the appropriate media.
     
542. 
     
     
543. 
     While some historians claim that the Industrial Revolution generated so many products that national advertising became necessary to sell these goods, others believe that advertising developed on a national scale in order to control the prices manufacturers charged for goods. Manufacturers came to realize that if their products became associated with quality, customers would ask for them by name, and manufacturers could then dictate prices without worrying about being undersold by generic products or bulk items. Nineteenth-century ads for patent medicines and cereal created the impression of difference among products when very few differences actually existed, and because ads created brand-name recognition, stores had to stock the desired brand. Some of the earliest brand names include Smith Brothers (cough drops since the early 1850s), Quaker Oats (1877), Ivory Soap (1879), and Eastman Kodak film (1888). Many of these companies packaged their products in small quantities, distinguishing them from generic bulk products sold in bins. This packaging also enabled manufacturers to add preservatives and to claim more freshness than could be found in loose food barrels. Product differentiation associated with brand-name packaged goods represents the single biggest triumph of advertising. Today, the high price of many products (such as designer jeans) results from advertising costs.

     Patent medicines and department stores dominated advertising by the end of the 1800s. During this period, one-sixth of all print ads came from patent-medicine and drug companies. Patent medicines were often made with water and concentrations of ethyl alcohol. One even included morphine. The alcohol and drugs in these medicines explained why people felt "better" after taking them, but they also triggered addiction problems for many customers. Some contemporary products originated as medicines, such as Coca-Cola, which was initially sold as a medicinal tonic and contained traces of cocaine before the drug was replaced by caffeine in 1903. Patent medicines made outrageous claims leading to increased public cynicism, and as a result advertisers began to develop industry codes to restore customer confidence. In part to monitor patent-medicine claims, the Food and Drug Act was passed in 1906. In addition to patent medicines, department-store ads were becoming prominent; by the early 1890s, more than 20 percent of ad space was devoted to these stores and their product lines. Department stores, which purchased items in large quantities, could sell the same products at smaller stores for less money. Also, increased volume and less money spent on individualized service allowed large department stores to put more of their profits into advertising.

     
     

544. The companies that produced the first inexpensive packaged consumer goods during the Industrial Revolution were also some of the first to advertise, and they remain major advertisers today. These companies include Procter & Gamble, Colgate-Palmolive, Heinz, Borden, Pillsbury, Eastman Kodak, Carnation, and American Tobacco. Some firms, such as Hershey's Chocolate, did not advertise initially yet rose to national prominence through word-of-mouth reputation. Because such companies clamored for advertising space in newspapers, the ratio of copy to advertisements was drastically changed. By the early 1990s, more than half of the space in daily papers was devoted to advertising ‒ a trend that continues today, with about 60 percent of the space in large dailies consumed by ads.

     
     
545. 
     
     Promoting social change and dictating values
     
546. 
     American advertising contributed to major social changes in the twentieth century. First, it significantly influenced the transition from a producer-directed to a consumer-driven culture. Second, advertising promoted technological advances by showing how new machines like vacuum cleaners, washing machines, and cars could improve daily life. Third, advertising encouraged economic growth by increasing sales.
     
547. 
     
     
548. 
     By the early 1900s, advertisers believed that women controlled most household purchasing decisions. This is still the fundamental principle of advertising today. However, more than 99 percent of the copywriters and ad executives at the time were men, primarily from Chicago and New York. They emphasized stereotypes they believed would appeal to women, and early ad copy feature tales of "heroic" cleaning products and household appliances.
     
549. 
     
     
550. 
     Though ad revenues fell during the 1930s, the business received a shot in the arm during World War II when, for the first time, the federal government bought large quantities of advertising space to promote America's involvement in the war. Also during the 1940s, the industry established the War Advertising Council to promote a more positive image of itself. The Council was a voluntary group of agencies and advertisers that organized war-bond sales, blood-donor drives, and the rationing of scarce goods. The Ad Council, as it became known as when it continued its efforts after the war, has been praised over the years for the Smokey the Bear campaign, fund-raising for the United Negro College Fund, and the "crash dummy" spots for the Department of Transportation.
     
551. 
     
     
552. 
     Television dramatically altered advertising, and with the new medium, ads increasingly intruded on daily life. As the industry appeared to be dictating American values as well as driving the economy, criticism of advertising grew. Critics discovered that some agencies used subliminal advertising ‒ hidden or disguised print and visual messages that allegedly register on the subconscious and fool people into buying products ‒ though research suggests that such ads are no more effective than regular ads.
     

553. 
     Early ad regulation
     
554. 
     In the early 1900s, revelations of fraudulent advertising practices and the emerging clout of ad agencies led to the formation of several watchdog organizations. The Better Business Bureau was created in 1913; by the 1990s it had more than two hundred offices in the United States., Canada, and Israel. The Audit Bureau of Circulation (ABC) was created in 1914 and tracked newspaper readership, guaranteeing that papers would not overcharge agencies and their clients. In 1917, the American Association of Advertising Agencies (AAAA) was established. It tried to minimize government oversight by imploring ad agencies to refrain from making misleading product claims.

     1. Until the Industrial Revolution, there was little need for advertising because _____.

     
     
555. 
     
     
556. 
     a. few goods and products were available for sale b. newspapers refused to sell ad space c. the printing technology was not available to produce ads d. all of the above
     

557. 
     2. Eighty percent of early advertisements covered _____.
     
558. 
     
     
559. 
     a. department stores, transportation announcements, and patent medicines b. transportation announcements, land sales, and runaway slaves c. runaway slaves, department stores, and land sales d. none of the above
     

560. 
     3. Which of the following is not an example of an early brand name?
     
561. 
     
     
562. 
     a. Ivory Soap b. Eastman Kodak c. Nike d. Quaker Oats
     

563. 
     4. How did American advertising contribute to major social changes in the twentieth century?
     

564. 
     a. it influenced the transition from a producer-directed to a consumer-driven culture b. it promoted technological advances c. it encouraged economic growth by increasing sales d. all of the above
     

565. 
     5. In the 1940s, the War Advertising Council was created to _____.
     

566. 
     a. promote a more positive image for the advertising industry b. handle advertising space purchased by the federal government c. abolish subliminal advertising d. none of the above
     

567. 
     Summary 2 Read the summary of the section of Chapter 11 titled "The shape of U.S. advertising today" and answer the multiple choice questions that follow.
     
568. 
     
     
569. 
     The shape of U.S. advertising today
     
570. 
     Up until the 1960s, most ads focused around a slogan, a phrase attempting to sell a product by capturing its essence in words. One example of a slogan is Clairol's "Does she or doesn't she?" and "Only her hairdresser knows for sure." However, through the influence of movies, television, and European design, images and visual style began to dictate American print advertising.
     
571. 
     
     
572. 
     The influence of visual design
     
573. 
     During the 1960s and 1970s, the postmodern design phase developing in art and architecture also began to influence advertising. Part of this visual revolution was imported from European schools of design, and some ad-rich magazines like Vogue and Vanity Fair hired European designers who were less tied to word-driven advertising as art directors. By the early 1970s, images and words were granted equal status in the creative process. In the mid-1980s, the visual aesthetic promoted by MTV's rapid edits, creative camera angles, compressed narratives, and staged performances began to heavily influence advertising. The popularity of the music channel also started a trend in licensing hit songs for commercial tie-ins ‒ a trend that is very much in evidence today. By 2002, the work of Sting was used to promote Jaguar cars, Fatboy Slim's music was used for Mercedes-Benz, and Britney Spears and Shakira songs were used to promote Pepsi.
     
574. 
     
     

575. 
     The mega-agency
     
576. 
     Large, full-service advertising agencies emerged during the twentieth century. Most recently, the trend has been toward mega-agencies, large ad firms formed by merging several individual agencies that maintain worldwide regional offices. Many of these agencies operate in-house radio and TV production studios in addition to providing advertising and public relations services. One of the largest mega-agencies and the leading communication service group in the world is the London-based WPP Group. In 1987, WPP purchased both J. Walter Thompson, the largest U.S. ad firm at the time, and Hill and Knowlton, a large public relations agency. It added Ogilvy & Mather Worldwide in 1989 and acquired Young and Rubicam in 2000. The mega-agency trend has stirred debate among consumer and media watchdog groups. One concern is that large agencies are a threat to smaller, independent firms; another is that a few firms now control the distribution of ad dollars globally and that the cultural values represented by American and European ads may undermine the values and products of developing countries.
     
     The boutique agency
     
577. 
     The visual revolution of the 1960s elevated the status of those designers and graphic artists who became closely identified with particular ads. Many of these creative people formed small boutique agencies and began to work with a handful of select clients. The boutiques prospered as they offered more personal services and innovative ad campaigns. One example of a successful boutique agency is Weiden & Kennedy from Portland, Oregon. They made a name after winning the Nike sneaker account in the 1980s and developing the slogan "Just do it." One of their recent successes is the series of "Nike Freestyle" commercials featuring unknowns skillfully handling basketballs to a hip-hop beat.
     
578. 
     
     
579. 
     The structure of ad agencies Ad agencies, regardless of size, are generally divided into four departments: market research, creative development, media selection, and account services. A separate administrative unit pays employee salaries, pays each media outlet that runs ads, and collects the agency's fees.
     
580. 
     The market research department assesses the behaviors and attitudes of consumers toward particular products before any ads are created. It studies everything from possible names for a new product to the size of the copy for a print ad. Researchers test new ideas and products on groups of consumers to get feedback, and some researchers contract with outside polling firms. The earliest type of market research, demographics, documented audience members' age, gender, occupation, ethnicity, education, and income. Today, demographics is much more specific, making it possible for advertisers to locate consumers by zip code. In the 1960s and 1970s, as television greatly increased ad revenue, advertisers expanded research to include psychographics. This approach attempts to categorize consumers according to attitudes, beliefs, interests, and motivations, often using focus groups, or small-group interviews in which a moderator leads a discussion about a product or an issue. In 1978, the Stanford Research Institute (SRI) instituted its VALS strategy, which divided consumers into clusters based on how they think and feel about products. In the late 1980s, VALS 2 was introduced, which not only classified people by values and lifestyles but also considered the ways consumers achieve the lifestyles to which they aspire. Agencies and clients have relied heavily on VALS to determine the best placement for TV and magazine ads, and even though VALS researchers do not claim that most people fit neatly into one category, many agencies believe that VALS research can give them an edge.
     
581. 
     
     
582. 
     The creative development department of an advertising agency is made up of teams of writers and artists. For print ads, the creative department develops words and graphics, and outlines rough sketches for newspaper, magazine, and direct-mail ads. For radio, this department prepares the working script and generates ideas for everything from narration to sound effects. For television, the creative department develops a storyboard, or a blueprint for the potential ad. The cost of advertising grows higher all the time. For example, a typical thirty-second national television ad cost $343,000 to produce in 1999, almost twice the production costs ten years earlier. The Superbowl remains the most expensive program for purchasing television advertising, with thirty seconds of time costing $2 million in 2002. Despite the high cost, both creative and research departments know that ads work best by slowly creating brand-name identities, associating certain products over time with quality and reliability in the minds of consumers.
     
583. 
     
     
584. 
     The media selection department in an ad agency is staffed by media buyers ‒ people who choose and purchase the types of media that are best suited to carry a client's ad. For example, media buyers who are trying to place ads for household products might buy television spots during TV shows viewed primarily by women, whereas they might encourage a company advertising beer to spend its money on cable and network sports programming, sports magazines, or evening talk radio. Advertisers often add incentive clauses to contracts with agencies, raising the fee if sales goals are met and lowering it if goals are missed. These types of clauses often encourage agencies to conduct saturation advertising, where a variety of media are inundated with ads aimed at target audiences. The Miller Lite beer campaign ("Tastes great, less filling") was one of the most successful saturation campaigns in history, running from 1973 to 1991 on television and radio, in magazine and newspaper ads, and on billboards and point-of-purchase store displays.
     
585. 
     
     
586. 
     The account services department of an agency is composed of account executives, or individuals responsible for bringing in new business and managing the accounts of established clients. Account executives also work as liaisons between the advertiser and the creative team, and they coordinate activities between their agency and a client's in-house personnel. This department oversees new ad campaigns in which several agencies bid for business. Clients often evaluate an existing ad agency's campaign in an account review. They also occasionally invite new agencies to submit new campaign strategies, which may result in the product company switching agencies.

     1. In the 1960s and 1970s, ad-rich magazines such as ______ and ______ hired European designers as art directors.

     
     
587. 
     a. Vogue/Vanity Fair b. Adweek / Vogue c. Sports Illustrated/Cosmopolitan d. the New Yorker/Vanity Fair
     
588. 
     
     
589. 
     2. Large ad firms formed by merging several individual agencies are also known as _____.
     

590. 
     a. boutique agencies b. creative development departments c. mega-agencies d. none of the above
     
591. 
     
     
592. 
     3. Which of the following is not a typical department in an ad agency?
     
593. 
     
     
594. 
     a. market research b. media selection c. account services d. editorial content
     

595. 
     4. The VALS strategy was developed by _____.
     
596. 
     
     
597. 
     a. the WPP b. the Stanford Research Institute c. focus groups d. Weiden & Kennedy
     

598. 
     5. The Miller Lite beer campaign ("Tastes great, less filling") is a good example of _____.
     
599. 
     
     
600. 
     a. account review b. psychographics c. a boutique agency d. saturation advertising
     

601. 
     Summary 3 Read the summary of the section of Chapter 11 titled "Persuasive techniques in contemporary advertising" and answer the multiple choice questions that follow.
     
602. 
     
     
603. 
     Persuasive techniques in contemporary ads
     
604. 
     While ad agencies and product companies maintain that the main purpose of advertising is to inform consumers about available products, most consumer ads merely tell stories about products without revealing much information about how a product was made, how it compares with similar brands, or what the price is.
     
605. 
     Conventional persuasive strategies
     
606. 
     There are several persuasive techniques that advertising agencies use to sway consumer opinion. One is the famous-person testimonial, where a product is endorsed by a well-known person. One example of this is former Star Trek actor William Shatner touting the benefits of Priceline.com. Another technique, the plain-folks pitch, associates a product with simplicity, as in the case of General Electric's "We bring good things to life" campaign. The opposite of plain-folks, the snob-appeal approach attempts to persuade consumers that using a product will maintain or elevate their social station. The bandwagon effect points out in exaggerated claims that everyone is using a particular product and that consumers will be left out (or they are not hip) if they ignore these products. The hidden-fear appeal plays on consumers' insecurities. Deodorant, mouthwash, and dandruff-shampoo ads point out that only a specific product could relieve embarrassing personal hygiene problems. Irritation advertising is used more often in local TV and radio campaigns. This technique creates product-name recognition with ads that are annoying or obnoxious, such as local car dealers who yell at the camera or dress in outrageous costumes.
     
607. 
     
     
608. 
     The association principle
     
609. 
     The association principle is a persuasive technique used in many consumer ads. It associates a product with some cultural value or image that has a positive connotation but may have little connection to the actual product. For example, many ads displayed visual symbols of American patriotism in the wake of the September 11th tragedies of 2001 in an attempt to associate products and companies with national pride. Over the years, the most controversial use of the association principle has been the linkage of products to stereotyped caricatures of women. Women have been portrayed as sex objects or as clueless housewives. Another strong association used often in advertising is nature. Marlboro often links its cigarettes to nature, using the image of the rugged cowboy, the Marlboro Man, to convince consumers to associate smoking with images of roping calves, building fences, or riding through pristine landscapes.
     
610. 
     
     
611. 
     In response to corporate mergers and public skepticism toward large impersonal companies, the disassociation corollary has emerged as a recent trend in advertising. As an advertising strategy, disassociation links new brands in a product line to eccentric or simple regional places rather than to the image conjured up by giant conglomerates. This concept was pioneered by the wine company Gallo, which established a dummy corporation, Bartles & Jaymes, to sell jug wine and wine coolers. Using two low-key, grandfatherly spokesmen to represent "co-owners" and ad spokesmen for the new company, Gallo was able to avoid the corporate image in ads and on its bottles. Miller Brewing Company and General Motors have both successfully used the disassociation corollary to launch new products.

     In our technology-dependent world, modern societies have come to value products that claim affiliation with the real and natural, though these terms are almost always used in advertising to describe processed goods. For example, Coke sells itself as "the real thing." Ads are most effective when they create attitudes and reinforce values. Although we realize that ads create a fictional world, we get caught up in their stories and associations ‒ regardless of whether they provide information about the product.

     
     
612. 
     
     
613. 
     1. Which persuasive technique involves a product being endorsed by a well-known person?
     
614. 
     
     
615. 
     a. plain-folks pitch b. famous-person testimonial c. snob-appeal d. hidden-fear appeal
     

616. 
     2. Which persuasive technique is often used more in local TV and radio campaigns?
     
617. 
     
     
618. 
     a. hidden-fear appeal b. bandwagon effect c. irritation advertising d. famous-person testimonial
     

619. 
     3. Ads displaying visual symbols of American patriotism in the wake of the September 11th tragedies of 2001 are examples of _____.
     

620. 
     a. the disassociation corollary b. myth analysis c. famous-person testimonial d. the association principle
     

621. 
     4. Large companies use _____ to link new product lines to simple regional places or reassuring, close-to-home values rather than to the image of a giant conglomerate.
     
622. 
     
     
623. 
     a. myth analysis b. the association principle c. snob-appeal d. disassociation
     

624. 5. Modern societies have come to value products that claim to be _____ and _____.

     
     
625. 
     
     
626. 
     a. technologically advanced/modern b. real/natural c. mythical/imaginary d. none of the above
     

627. 
     Summary 4 Read the summaries of the sections of Chapter 11 titled "Commercial speech and regulating advertising" and "Advertising, politics, and democracy" and retell them.
     
628. 
     
     
629. 
     Commercial speech and regulating advertising
     
630. 
     Whereas freedom of speech refers to the right to express thoughts, beliefs, and opinions, commercial speech ‒ any print or broadcast expression for which a fee is charged ‒ refers to the right to circulate goods, services, and images in the marketplace of products. The many new forms of commercial speech that have appeared of late include cable television home-shopping networks, late-night television long-form commercials, and infomercials. Although the mass media have embraced these new forms of commercial speech, they have also refused certain controversial, issue-based advertising that might upset traditional advertisers. One example of this is the Media Foundation, which has had difficulty getting airtime for its "uncommercials," such as a spot promoting the Friday after Thanksgiving as "Buy Nothing Day."
     
631. 
     
     
632. 
     Critical issues in advertising
     
633. 
     While consumers have historically been regarded as dupes, research reveals that the consumer mind is not as easy to predict as some advertisers once thought. For example, in the 1960s the Scott paper company thought its disposable clothing line would challenge traditional apparel, but despite heavy advertising, this never happened. Similar stories from other companies abound. Between 75 and 90 percent of new consumer products fail because they are not embraced by the buying public. Despite public resistance to many new products, advertising has made contributions to our society, including raising the standard of living and supporting most media industries. However, serious concerns over the impact of advertising remain.

     Because children and teenagers influence up to $500 billion a year in family spending, they are increasingly targeted by advertisers. For years, groups like the Action for Children's Television (ACT) worked to limit advertising aimed at children, in particular thirty-minute cartoon programs such as G.I. Joe, My Little Pony, and Pokemon, developed for television syndication to promote a line of toys. Also, parent groups have worried about the promotion of products like sugar-coated cereals during children's programs. Congress, faced with the protection that the First Amendment offers commercial speech, has responded weakly.

     
     
634. 
     
     
635. 
     One of the most controversial developments in advertising in recent years was the introduction of Channel One into thousands of schools during the 1989-90 school year. Offering "free" video and satellite equipment in exchange for a ten-minute package of current events programming that included two minutes of commercials, Channel One was available in more that twelve thousand junior high and high schools by 2002, reaching a captive audience of eight million students. While over the years organizations like the National Dairy Council have also used schools to promote products by offering free filmstrips, posters, magazines, and folders, Channel One is viewed as more intrusive because it crosses the line between an entertainment situation (commercial television) and a learning situation (school). Some school districts have banned Channel One, as has the state of New York.
     
636. 
     
     
637. 
     Historically, many companies have capitalized on consumers' unhappiness and insecurity by promising relief or the kind of body that is currently in fashion, and advertising has a powerful impact on the standards of beauty in our culture. The long-standing trend in advertising is the association of some products with ultrathin female models ‒ some so skinny that critics began referring to the style of these ads as "heroin chic" because the models look like victims of prolonged drug use. In addition to criticism for promoting skeleton-like beauty, the advertising industry has been taken to task for promoting alcohol and tobacco consumption. Despite the fact that each year four hundred thousand Americans die from diseases related to nicotine addiction and an additional one hundred thousand die from alcohol-related diseases, staggering amounts of money are spent each year on advertising to encourage these habits. Many ad campaigns over the years have appealed to teenagers, such as the Joe Camel cartoons to promote Camel cigarettes. Cigarette companies have also targeted groups such as young women (Eve and Virginia Slims cigarettes) and African Americans (Uptown cigarettes). In 1998, after it had been revealed that some tobacco companies had known that nicotine is addictive as early as the 1950s and had withheld that information from the public, the tobacco industry agreed to an unprecedented settlement after four states won against the tobacco industry and the remaining states threatened still more expensive lawsuits. The settlement included a ban on cartoon characters in advertising and ended outdoor billboard and transit advertising. It also banned tobacco-company sponsorship of concerts and athletic events, and limited other types of tobacco-company sponsorship. Many of the complaints regarding tobacco advertising are also being directed at alcohol ads. One example is the criticism of the cartoonish Budweiser frogs, which appear to be appeal to younger viewers. Alcohol ads have also targeted minorities and college students. Both Coors and Miller still employ student representatives to notify brewers of special events that might be sponsored by the beer labels.
     
     Watching over advertisers
     
638. 
     Hard-liquor ads had been banned from radio since 1936 and from television since 1948. In 1996, however, Seagram, a Canadian liquor company, defied the ban and began testing regional TV ads in Texas. Execs at Seagram called the ban "obsolete" and pointed to other countries that featured liquor ads on television. Following Seagram's lead, the Distilled Spirits Council, the liquor industry's trade association, voted in 1996 to lift the voluntary ban on broadcast ads. However, at the time the major networks refused to carry the ads nationally, citing efforts to promote responsible drinking and the threat that liquor advertising posed to their beer and wine ad revenues.

     In addition to pushing for legislation aimed at controversial products such as hard liquor, groups such as the Better Business Bureau, the National Fraud Information Center, and the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) monitor deceptive and false advertisements. Professions like medicine and law have also often tried to limit ads through their professional organizations. For example, bar associations tried to prohibit lawyers from advertising until a 1978 ruling in which the Supreme Court ruled that lawyers have a First Amendment right to promote their services.

     
     
639. 
     
     
640. 
     For years it was considered taboo for an advertiser to mention a competitor by name in its ads ‒ industry guidelines discouraged the practice and TV networks prohibited it, believing that comparative ads would result in name-calling. In 1971, however, the FTC began encouraging comparative advertising because the agency thought this practice could help consumers by providing more product information. Since then, comparative advertising has been common, particularly in the food industry, with battles such as Burger King vs. McDonald's and Pepsi vs. Coke.
     
641. 
     
     
642. 
     In most advertisements, a certain amount of exaggeration and hyperbole is expected and has been permitted, though when a product claims to be "the best," "the greatest," or "preferred by four out of five doctors," the FTC often asks for supportive evidence. Also, when the FTC discovers deceptive ads, it usually requires advertisers to change their ads or remove them from circulation. One example of deceptive ads were the Campbell Soup spots that used marbles in the bottom of a soup bowl to push more bulky ingredients to the surface.
     
643. 
     
     
644. 
     Advertising's threat to journalism
     
645. 
     Advertising wields power that is often subtle and difficult to monitor. The interaction between advertising and journalism can be particularly troublesome. One problem is that as many dailies faced financial difficulties in the 1990s, some editors looking to keep advertisers happy did not run controversial business stories. The Portland Oregonian, for example, killed a real-estate story and destroyed thousands of copies of a Sunday edition because its advertising department complained to the editors. Newspapers do not always bow to such pressure. The Seattle Times refused to back down from a story criticizing Nordstrom's labor difficulties, even after the large department store reduced its advertising in the paper. Local news outlets are also subject to advertiser pressure. A 2000 survey by the nonprofit Project for Excellence in Journalism found that one-third of television news directors had been pressured by advertisers or station management to do positive stories, or kill negative stories, about advertisers.
     
646. 
     
     
647. 
     Advertising and the Internet
     
648. 
     The Internet is a very attractive medium for advertisers because of its unique ability to record and track online users. Internet advertising climbed from $1 billion in 1998 to between $8 and 10 billion by 2000, and it is expected to become a $28 billion market by 2005. The banner ad, typically a rectangular ad that loads at the top of the Web page, was the most common style of advertising, though these ads were losing favor by 2001. To achieve higher click-through rates, the Interactive Advertising Bureau agreed on seven new, larger "skyscraper" and "large rectangle" ad formats. Still other forms of Web advertising are less obvious and have blurred the lines between advertising and editorial content. For example, search engines regularly give top billing in search result lists to companies that pay for prominence, and many Internet games double as advertisements.
     
     Alternative voices
     
649. 
     One of the most innovative ad campaigns in recent history was created by the American Legacy Foundation as one of the provisions of the government's multibillion-dollar settlement with the tobacco industry in 1998. The nonprofit foundation worked with a coalition of ad agencies, a group of teenage consultants, and a $300 million budget to create a series of stylish, gritty print and television ads using teen voices and actors to deconstruct the images that have long been associated with cigarette ads. The commercials show teens dragging, piling, or heaving body bags across the beach or onto a horse, and holding up signs saying, "What if cigarette ads told the truth?" The ads reference the Foundation's Web site, thetruth.com, which offers statistics, discussion forums, and outlets for teen creativity.
     
650. 
     
     
651. 
     Summary 5 Read the summary of the section of Chapter 11 titled "Advertising, politics, and democracy" and answer the multiple choice questions that follow.
     
652. 
     
     
653. 
     Advertising, politics, and democracy
     
654. 
     As advertising has become more pervasive and consumers more discriminating, advertisers have searched for new ways to work ads into social and cultural fabric. Products now act as props or even "characters" in TV shows and movies, and almost every national consumer product has its own Web site. Some advertisers try to transform the political and cultural message of popular music to sell their products. Some examples of this are the use of the Beatles' "Revolution" to promote Nike shoes and the use of David Bowie's "Heroes" to promote Microsoft software. Political advertising is a more straightforward form of cultural blending, using ad techniques to promote a candidate's image and persuade the public to adopt a particular viewpoint. Politicians often use powerful visual images and attack other candidates in their ads, which distract viewers from the real campaign issues. In the late 1980s, a research team at the University of Pennsylvania's Annenberg School of Communication developed a method to critique political advertisements, which the major networks picked up on in the early 1990s in a news segment called Ad Watch. As a result of Ad Watch, media consultants began paying more attention to the veracity of their ads. Because political advertising is big business for television stations, broadcasters have long opposed free time for political campaigns. This raises serious questions about political ads. Can serious information on political issues be conveyed in thirty-second spots? Do repeated attacks on a rival's character undermine citizens' confidence in the electoral process? How will alternative political voices, which are not so well financed, be heard?
     
655. 
     
     
656. 
     Though as individuals and as a society we may sometimes be uneasy with advertising, a number of factors have allowed for the industry's largely unchecked growth. Americans tolerate advertising as a necessary evil for maintaining the economy, and many dismiss advertising as trivial. Because we are willing to downplay its centrality to global culture, many citizens do not think advertising is significant enough to monitor or reform.
     
657. 
     
     
658. 
     1. Commercial speech can be defined as _____.
     
659. 
     
     
660. 
     a. the right to express thoughts, beliefs, and opinions b. any print or broadcast expression for which a fee is charged c. myth analysis d. issue-based
     

661. 
     2. The Action for Children's Television group works to _____.
     

662. 
     a. limit advertising aimed at children b. increase advertising aimed at children c. create new children's shows based on existing action figures d. none of the above
     

663. 
     3. In 2002, Channel One reached a captive audience of _____ students.
     
664. 
     
     
665. 
     a. 100 thousand b. 1 million c. 8 million d. none of the above
     

666. 4. Over the years, cigarette ads have targeted groups such as _____.

     
     
667. 
     
     
668. 
     a. teenagers b. young women c. African Americans d. all of the above
     

669. 
     5. The most common style of advertising on the Internet used to be _____.
     

670. 
     a. the banner ad b. spam c. the classified ad d. the rich media ad
     
671. 
     
     
672. 
     (http://bcs.bedfordstmartins.com/mediaculture/pages/bcs-main.asp? v=chapter&s=14000&n=00030&i=14030.02&o=|00020|00030|&ns=0)
     
673. 
     
     
674. 
     III. Text reviewing
     
675. 
     
     
676. 
     Review the sections "Early developments in American advertising", "The shape of U.S. advertising today", "Persuasive techniques in contemporary advertising", "Commercial speech and regulating advertising" and "Advertising, politics, and democracy" in your textbook. When you are ready, write a brief paragraph-length response to each of the questions that follow.
     
677. 
     
     

1. 
   Briefly describe the first American advertising agencies.
   
2. 
   Describe how advertising helped manufacturers control the prices they charged for goods.
   
3. 
   Discuss the progression of advertising from text-based (up until the 1960s) to image-based (from the 1960s to the present).
   
4. 
   Briefly define and describe a boutique ad agency.
   
5. 
   Name and define at least three persuasive techniques used by advertising agencies to sway consumer opinion.
   
6. 
   Describe the association principle in advertising.
   
7. 
   Describe the innovative ads created by the American Legacy Foundation.
   What are some of the concerns about televised political advertisements?
   

1. Describe patent medicines, which were major contributors to advertising during the 1800s.

2. Describe how the patent-medicine industry contributed to the passage of the Food and Drug Act in 1906.
Focus Questions (2)

1. Where is most advertising based?

1. 
   
   Directory: upload -> iblock
   upload -> City of rising star regular meting thursday, july 14, 2016
   upload -> Township of winfield
   iblock -> MC/dc coverage measurement of c programs
   iblock -> Спецификация к
   iblock -> Residence: (902) 555-1234
   iblock -> АҒылшын тілі нұсқау
   iblock -> Vorobyov Oleksandr Sergeevich
   iblock -> Application form
   iblock -> Guzenko Oleksandr
   
   
   
   Download 3.34 Mb.
   
   Share with your friends: