Mwezi Tumia eneo hili kwa maneno yanayohusiana na mwezi



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9.6.2.9 Vipashio vya kuridhia


Use this domain for words indicating that the speaker is conceding a point in a debate.

(1) What words indicate that the speaker is conceding a point?

• concession, although, though, even though, and yet, even if, nevertheless

9.6.2 Mahusiano ya uegemezi


Use this domain for words indicating that something is dependent on another thing.

(1) What words express the fact that something is logically dependent on another?

• to depend on, that depends, depend upon, dependency, dependent, hang on, tied to, lean on, stand on, supportive relationship

9.6.3.1 Vipashio vya mpito


Use this domain for conjunctions that simply move the discourse forward without any specific relationship indicated between what comes before and what comes after.

(1) What words are used to join two clauses or sentences without specifying the relationship between them?

• and, then, but, now, it happened that, it came to pass that, one day, my next topic is, my next point is, now about

9.6.3.2 Vipashio vya mkazo


Use this domain for words that indicate that the phrase or sentence is particularly important.

(1) What words indicate that a phrase or sentence is important?

• then, indeed, surely, so, certainly, in fact, actually, how, you know, really, sure, just, you know don't you that, how much more, emphatically, absolutely, without question, no way, of course, obviously, you've got to be kidding, it is just that, the only thing is, one thing that, in reality, only that, as it were, just as you can see, as you know, without a doubt, don't you remember, I am convinced that

9.6.3.3 Vipashio vya usikivu


Use this domain for words that are used to get someone's attention or direct the listener's attention to something. These may use a verb meaning 'look' or 'listen'. Some may be a word specifically referring to attention. Others may be a greeting. Others may be words that refer to non-verbal communication such as clearing your throat.

(1) What words are used to get someone's attention?

• you, you there, hey you, hello, excuse me, attention, attention please, may I have your attention please, pay attention, listen up everybody, now hear this, and now for an important announcement, and now for a word from our sponsor, just a moment, wait a minute, lend me your ears, look here, ahem

(2) What words are used to direct someone's attention to something?

• behold, look, will you look at that, get a load of this, (point)

(3) What words are used to warn someone of danger?

• watch out, look out, heads up, hit the dirt, get out of the way, here it comes, oh no, (scream)

(4) What non-verbal means are used to get someone's attention

• clear throat, whistle, raise hand

9.6.3.4 Vipashio vya kuita kwa jina au cheo


Use this domain for words that the speaker uses to refer to the person he is addressing. These words are usually used when you start talking to someone, but can be used during a speech or conversation to refer to the person you are talking to.

(1) What words are used when you start talking to someone?

• O, sir, ma'am, ladies and gentlemen, men and brothers, (look) you, (listen) all of you

9.6.3.5 Vipashio vya utambulisho


Use this domain for words that begin a clause that identifies a specific case or example of what has just been said, or that explains what has just been said. Specific case: I have just mentioned a general class of things or a general idea and want to give a specific example of what I am talking about. Explanation: I have just said something and I think people might misunderstand, so I want to explain what I mean. Digression: I am talking about a particular topic, but want to say something that does not fit into my topic, so I say something that is about a different topic.

(1) What words are used to identify a specific case?

• that, namely, namely that, that is, i.e.

(2) What words are used to introduce an example?

• for example, e.g., as follows, as below, such as, let me give you an example, to illustrate

(3) What words are used to introduce an explanation?

• what I mean is, that is to say, let me add, allow me to explain, it's like

(4) What words are used to introduce a conclusion?

• which shows that, so we find, so we see

(5) What words mark a digression?

• let me just insert, as an aside, this is off the subject, oh by the way

9.6.3.6 Markers of focus


Use this domain for words indicating that one of several things is in focus.

(1) What words focus especially on one of several things?

• especially, particularly, particular, most of all

9.6.3.7 Hesitation fillers


Use this domain for words that a speaker uses when he hesitates or pauses while he is speaking in order to think about what he is saying.

(1) What words are used when a speaker hesitates or pauses to think?

• um, uh, er, hmm, yeah, let's see, hold on a minute, let me see, let me think

9.6.3.8 Honorifics


Use this domain for words that the speaker uses to show respect or a lack of respect to the person he is addressing. Some languages have elaborate systems of honorifics. Other languages have none. Languages with a stratified social structure often use honorifics. Egalitarian societies generally lack them, but some egalitarian societies may use them. For instance in Nahuatl there are four levels of honorifics. Level 1 is how one addresses intimates, small children, and pets. Level 2 is for strangers and persons treated formally. Level 3 is for respected persons, the dead, and God. Level 4 is for obsequious respect, as for the archbishop in an interview with a priest, and for ritual kin. (Jane H. Hill and Kenneth C. Hill. 1978. Honorific usage in modern Nahuatl: the expression of social distance and respect in the Nahuatl of the Malinche Volcano area, Language 54:123-155.) In Japanese, which has a stratified social structure, a person uses one set of words and affixes when speaking to someone below you in the social hierarchy, such as your wife, children, and pets. A different set of words is used when speaking to peers. Another set is used when speaking to a superior. A fourth set is used when speaking to the emperor. English used to have two pronouns for second person singular. 'Thou' was used for equals and inferiors, and 'you' was used for superiors. Your language may have special honorific words used as (1) pronouns, (2) affixes, (3) particles, (4) terms of direct address, (5) greetings (6) requests, (7) apologies.

(1) What pronouns are used to show respect or a lack of respect?

• thou (archaic), you (archaic),

(2) What affixes are used to show respect?

• (none in English)

(3) What particles are used to show respect?

• please,

(4) What terms of direct address are used to show respect?

• sir, ma'am, your honor, your majesty,

(5) What words are used in greetings to show respect?

• hey, hi, hello, pleased to meet you,

(6) What words are used in requests to show respect?

• may, can,

(7) What words are used in apologies to show respect?

• sorry, excuse me, I beg your pardon,

9.6.3 Vitambulishi vya usemi


Use this domain for conjunctions and particles that function on the discourse level, and whose meaning and function is uncertain.

(1) What discourse markers are in your language?

• just, you know, OK, yeah, like

9.6 Connected with, related


Use the domains in this section for words that indicate a logical relation between two or more words or sentences. Use this domain for words that indicate an unspecified logical relation between people, things, or situations.

(1) What words indicate that two things or situations are connected somehow?

• be connected (with), be related (to), be linked (with), be associated (with), there is a link between, there is a connection between, be bound up with, go hand in hand, relate, relation, be a relationship between, relationship, have something to do with, be something to do with, be intertwined, tied, pertain, be relative to,

(2) What words indicate that two people are connected somehow?

• be connected with, have links, have connections with, be linked with,

(3) What words indicate that two things are connected because they are similar in some way?

• related, associated, allied,

(4) What words indicate that several things are connected somehow?

• interconnected, interrelated,

(5) What words refer to showing that there is a connection between two things?

• connect, link, associate, make a connection, establish a link, establish a connection, relate, correlate,

(6) What words refer to something that connects two things?

• connection, relationship, link (between), point of contact, association, tie, relation, correlation, interplay,

(7) What words indicate that there is no connection between two things?

• no connection, unrelated, unconnected,

(8) What words indicate that something someone says has no connection with the topic being discussed?

• irrelevant, be beside the point, have nothing to do with, be nothing to do with, be neither here nor there, doesn't come into it, be a red herring,

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9.7.1.1 Majina ya watu


Use this domain for those names that are given to people, that people use to call to each other and to talk about each other.

(1) What are the given names used by people in the language group?

• John, David, Mary, Elizabeth

9.7.1.2 Majina ya familia


Use this domain for the proper names of the families that exist within the language community. If your culture does not use family names, just leave this domain empty.

(1) What names are used by all the members of a family?

• Smith, Jones, MacDonald, Johnson

9.7.1.3 Majina ya ukoo


Use this domain for the proper names of the clans that exist within the language community. The distinction between family, clan, tribe, and nation is based on politics and emotion. Our purpose here is not to make political statements, but merely to list the names. There may be no distinction between family and clan, in which case ignore this domain and use the domain 'Family names'.

(1) What are the proper names of the clans?

• Hatfields, McCoys, Bear Clan

9.7.1.4 Majina ya kabila


Use this domain for the proper names of the tribes that exist around the language community, including the name of your own tribe. These tribal names may or may not correspond with the names of countries.

(1) What are the proper names of the neighboring tribes?

• Saxons, Scots, Welsh, Picts, Irish, Normans, Vikings, Brits, Americans, Aussies, Kiwis, Sioux, Cherokee

9.7.1.5 Majina ya lugha


Use this domain for the proper names of the languages that are spoken in the area around the language community, including the name of your own language. These language names may or may not correspond with the names of countries. Do not try to include every language name in the world, only the neighboring and important ones. For instance you might want to include the languages that border your own and the national language. Give the form that you use. For instance the German people call their language 'Deutsch', but in English we call it 'German'.

(1) What are the names of the languages spoken in the area?

• English, Gaelic, Irish, Welsh, Dutch, German, French, Spanish, Pidgin English

9.7.1.6 Nickname


Use this domain for common nicknames--an additional name given to a person later in life, often descriptive. Also include general names used to call or refer to someone when you don't know their name

(1) What are the common nicknames?

• buddy, buster, guy, gal, bro, sis

(2) What names are used to refer to someone when you don't know their name.

• John Doe, Jane Doe, Joe Blow, GI Joe

9.7.1.7 Majina ya wapenzi


Use this domain for terms of endearment--a name used by lovers or spouses to express love or intimacy. Some languages may have special names used by close friends.

(1) What are the terms of endearment?

• sweetheart, honey, dear

9.7.1 Jina la mtu


Tumia eneo hili kwa maneno ya jumla tu yanayotaja neno la jina. Kwa majina yenyewe ya watu, ya familia na kadhalika, tumia maeneo ya 9.9 'Nomino pekee', 9.9.1 'Majina ya watu', 9.9.1.1 'Majina ya kupewa', na 9.9.1.2 'Majina ya familia'.

(1) Maneno gani hutaja jina la mtu?

• jina, jina la baba, jina la ukoo

(2) What words refer to a name your family or friends use for you that is not your real name?

• nickname, pet name

(3) What words refer to a name you use for yourself that is not your real name?

• false name, pseudonym, pen name, stage name, alias, a.k.a. (also known as), under the name of, under an assumed name, go by the name of,

(4) What words are used to refer to someone when you can't remember what they are called?

• what's his/her name, whatchamacallit, whatsit, so and so,

(5) What words describe someone whose name is not known?

• anonymous, unnamed, unidentified, incognito, unknown, nameless,

(6) What words refer to discovering or stating the name of someone whose name has not been known?

• name, identify,

(7) What words are used to indicate a person's name?

• someone's name is, be called, be known as, named,

(8) What words refer to giving someone a name?

• name (v), call, be christened, give a name to, choose a name, pick a name, call him/her 'name'

(9) What words refer to the reason why someone is given a name?

• be named for, be named after, namesake

(10) When is a name given?

• naming ceremony, christening

(11) What words refer to writing your name?

• sign (your name), signature

9.7 Jina


Tumia eneo hili kwa nomino pekee, yaani maneno yanayotaja na kubainisha jina la mtu, la mahali n.k..

(1) What general words refer to the name of a person, place, or thing?

• name, proper noun,

(2) What words refer to giving a name to someone or something?

• name (v), call, christen,

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9.7.2.1 Majina ya nchi


Use this domain for the proper names of the countries that exist around the language community, especially those countries where your language is spoken. Include the name of your own country. Do not list every country in the world, unless your language has developed special names or pronunciations for those countries. Include any country that you refer to in your language, especially those names whose pronunciation you have adapted to fit your language. Give the form of the name that you use, rather than the official spelling. For instance the Japanese refer to their country as 'Nihon', but in English will call it 'Japan'. So 'Japan' is an English word and should go into an English dictionary. But 'Nihon' is not an English word and should not go in the dictionary.

(1) What are the proper names of the countries where your language is spoken?

• Great Britain, United States of America, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Ireland

(2) What are the proper names of the neighboring countries?

• Netherlands, Germany, France, Spain, Mexico

(3) What words are used to refer to a citizen of these countries?

• Brit, the English, American, Canadian, Aussie, Kiwi

9.7.2.2 Majina ya mikoa na ya maeneo


Use this domain for the proper names of the regions within your country or language area. Some of these may be political regions. Others may be informal terms. Give the local pronunciation, rather than some foreign spelling. You may want to limit this domain to just those areas within your language area. However if you have special names for areas outside of your language area, for example 'the Mideast', you should include them.

(1) What are the names of the regions in the area?

• Yorkshire, California, Midlands, Midwest, the South, outback

9.7.2.3 Majina ya miji na vijiji


Use this domain for the proper names of cities, towns, and villages in the language area. Include the names of important cities outside of the language area if your language has a special name for the city or a different pronunciation for it. It might be good to use a map for this. In fact it is good to include a map of the language area in a published dictionary. If your language area is very large, there may be hundreds or thousands of cities, towns, and villages. In this case you will have to decide which should be included in the dictionary. Or you could decided to list them in a special section.

(1) What are the names of the cities in the language area?

• London, Washington D.C.

(2) What are the names of districts within a city?

• Westminster, Chelsea

9.7.2.4 Majina ya mitaa


Use this domain for the proper names of highways, roads, streets, and trails in the language area. If there are many such names, only include the important names (e.g. King's Highway) or commonly used names (e.g. Main Street).

(1) What are the names of the streets in the language area?

• King's Highway, Highway 66, Main Street, Piccadilly Square, Oregon Trail

9.7.2.5 Majina ya vitu katika anga


Use this domain for the proper names of the heavenly bodies.

(1) What are the names of the planets?

• Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto

(2) What are the names of the constellations?

• Milky Way, Big Dipper, Orion, Pleiades, Southern Cross

(3) What are the names of the stars?

• North Star, Morning Star, Betelgeuse, Alpha Centauri

(4) What are the names of other heavenly bodies?

• Halley's Comet

9.7.2.6 Majina ya mabara


Use this domain for the proper names of the continents. Only include the names of continents if your language has borrowed or adapted the name and you talk about them in your language.

(1) What are the names of the continents?

• Africa, Antarctica, Asia, Australia, Europe, North America, South America,

9.7.2.7 Majina ya milima


Use this domain for the proper names of the mountains in the language area. Only include the names of mountains outside the language area if your language has borrowed or adapted the name and you talk about them in your language.

(1) What are the names of the mountains in the language area?

• Mount Rainier, Mount McKinley

(2) What are the names of the mountain ranges in the language area?

• Rocky Mountains, Sierras, Appalachian Mountains

9.7.2.8 Majina ya bahari na ya maziwa


Use this domain for the proper names of the oceans and lakes in the language area. Only include the names of oceans and lakes outside the language area if your language has borrowed or adapted the name and you talk about them in your language.

(1) What are the names of the oceans?

• Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean, Arctic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea

(2) What are the names of the lakes in the language area?

• Lake Superior, Lake Michigan

9.7.2.9 Majina ya mito


Use this domain for the proper names of the rivers in the language area. Only include the names of rivers outside the language area if your language has borrowed or adapted the name and you talk about them in your language.

(1) What are the names of the rivers in the language area?

• Thames, Mississippi, Missouri, Hudson

9.7.2 Name of a place


Use this domain for words referring to the name of a place.

(1) What words refer to the name of a place?

• place name

9.7.3.1 Names of animals


Use this domain for words referring to the name of an animal. Some cultures give names to domesticated animals or to animals in stories. Think through each kind of domesticated animal.

(1) What words refer to the name of an animal?

• Br'er rabbit

(2) What names are given to dogs?

• Lassie, Fifi, Toto

9.7.3.2 Names of buildings


Use this domain for words referring to the name of a building.

(1) What words refer to the name of a building?

• White House, Capitol

9.7.3 Name of a thing


Use this domain for words related to the name of a thing. Many cultures give names to particular buildings, ships, airplanes, organizations, companies, schools, and other things. If your language has hundreds of names for some kind of thing, it is best to not try to list them all. But if there are a few important names for one kind of thing, set up a domain for them.

(1) What words refer to a name for something?

• name, proper name, designation, label, nomenclature, tag, title,

(2) What words are used to indicate the name of something?

• be called, be known as, be entitled, be termed, go by the name of, so-called,

(3) What words are used to refer to something when you can't remember what it is called?

• what's its name, thingy, thingamajig, whatchamacallit, whatsit, such and such

(4) What words refer to a name that is not correct?

• misnomer,

(5) What words describe something that has the name of something but not its qualities?

• nominal, in name only,

(6) What words refer to giving something a name?

• call, name, rename,

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9 Sarufi


Tumia eneo la maana hili kwa maneno ya kiisimu yanayohusiana na maneno ya kisarufi na uundaji. Karibu zote za lugha zina maneno machache katika eneo la maana hili zikiwa na neno hata moja.

(1) Maneno gani hutaja masomo ya sarufi?

• grammar, syntax, morphology

(2) Maneno gani hutaja aina za maneno ya kisarufi?

• noun, verb, adjective, adverb, conjunction, preposition, particle, article, word, participle, infinitive, part of speech, compound, derivative

(3) Maneno gani hutaja aina za uundaji wa kisarufi?

• phrase, clause, sentence, paragraph

(4) Maneno gani hutaja sehemu za maneno?

• root, stem, affix, prefix, suffix, ending, morpheme,

(5) Maneno gani hutumika kwa kuongelea sarufi?

• inflect, inflection, case, decline, declension, conjugate, conjugation, parse, paradigm, rule, singular, plural

(6) Maneno gani hutumika kwa kuongelea sauti za lugha?



• letter, consonant, vowel, syllable

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